Organizational And Legal Aspects Of Digital Technologies In Counteracting Corruption

The article describes involvement of modern technologies in combating corruption and their actuality in the current digitalization of the world. Such ICT tools as Digital government services, Big Data Technologies, Distributed ledger technologies (DLT) and blockchain, data mining, crowdsourcing technologies, analytical (Forensic) tools and electronic systems for verification of income declarations, as well as foreign experience of their usage and implementation are thoroughly examined.


INTRODUCTION
Active involvement of the Internet and ITtechnologies in all spheres of human life and industry -from everyday life to production, characterized as the fourth wave of industrial revolution, or "Industry 4.0" has led to rapid access to vast amounts of data about society, economy and environment. Possibilities created due to information technology tools and processing large amounts of information began to be actively used to address key problems of the state, including combating corruption. [1] According to leading OECD researchers in the field of digitalization and anti-corruption policy, modern information technologies can significantly enhance effectiveness of ongoing Emergence of such instruments lays great grounds and prospects for promoting anticorruption policy by radically improving the means and methods of combating corruption with analysis of causes and conditions conducive to corruption, identification, prevention, and minimization of damage from corruption crimes.
Experience of foreign countries has shown that the benefits of digitalization can only be realized if there are appropriate infrastructure, regulations, financial resources and personnel trained in ICT issues.
Depending on goals, IT technologies in the field of combating corruption can be conditionally classified into several main groups.

Digital government services and egovernment
These tools have already been serving to fight corruption by expanding access to public information [2], monitoring activities of public servants, digitizing public services and ensuring reporting on corruption [3]; it is a subform of e-government that involves the use of ICTs, particularly the Internet, web devices and electronic data management systems to provide public services to citizens. [4] An example of widespread adoption of digital public services as one of the most advanced in the world is Estonia [5] that has built digital systems for almost all public services (e-Estonia).
2. Technologies for processing large amounts of data (Big Data) -a set of approaches, tools and methods for processing large amounts of structured data to obtain human-perceived results.
A very good example is the Australian Tax Office using Big Data technology to collect evidence of corruption offenses by government officials and to identify suspicious transactions in offshore zones.
In 2018, researchers from Valladolid University (Spain) created a computer model based on artificial neural networks. It calculates the likelihood of corruption in the Spanish provinces and conditions that support it.
Such terms as "social trust system", "social rating" or "social credit system" started to be widely discussed in 2014 when the State Council of the People's Republic of China released "Program for the creation of social credit system (2014-2020)" and introduced government program called "Social Trust System" (SCS)for assessing public servants. [6] The program allows for early prevention of corruption offenses according to a number of parameters and to take measures in relation to employees who attract attention of law enforcement agencies.
As of the end of April 2018, more than 15 million Chinese, that is, every hundredth resident of the country, were subject to administrative penalties due to the "low level of social rating".

Distributed ledger technologies (DLT) and blockchain.
Blockchain is used to mitigate high-risk transactions in areas that are particularly prone to corruption risks, such as property registration, land ownership and government contracting. Consequently, the use of blockchain technology can enhance transparency and prevent fraud, with possible monitoring and accountability. Another promising area of blockchain technology application is land registries. "Bitfury" is a privately company specializing in development of software solutions based on decentralized and synchronized data sets; the company is currently implementing a land cadaster system in Georgia using blockchain technology. The system, Bitfury explains, involves storing land ownership certificates based on a distributed ledger. [8] The government of Shenzhen (PRC) has piloted "fintech" app, that is blockchain-based digital app developed by Tencent Technologies (WeChat). This technology aims to ensure that every account is traced, information cannot be changed and data cannot be lost. The entire process can be monitored in real time and contribute to transparency of tax regime in the country.
Every person in Estonia who visits a doctor or hospital has an electronic health record that can be tracked. Medical information identified with electronic ID card is kept safe and at the same time accessible to authorized persons.

Technologies of data mining (Data Mining).
Anti-corruption software tools such as Data Mining technology are developed specifically to detect fraud and promptly respond to its occurrence. The European Commission has partnered with Transparency International to develop similar data analysis software. This software helps to identify projects that are at risk of fraud, conflict of interest or abuse. [9] Artificial intelligence (AI) is a type of data mining technology. AI technologies are used by countries in combating corruption and cybercrimes mainly for two tasks -automatic analysis of large amounts of data (SWIFT payments, data from social networks) and obtaining fundamentally new types of knowledge. An example is photographs facerecognition and matching them with geolocation or with social network profiles.
According to a study by CB Insights analytical company, AI companies received a record $ 26.6 billion funding in 2,235 agreements in 2019, while in 2018 this figure was only $ 4.2 billion (581 agreements). [10] A famous precedent of the use of AI to fight against corruption is a computer system Zero Trust ("zero confidence"), developed on the basis of former Forrester analyst John Kindervaga's system in 2010.
Zero Trust system was tested in 30 counties and cities of China in 2012-2019 and assisted to identify more than 8 000 violations of anticorruption prohibitions and restrictions by public servants. Zero Trust, being integrated with more than 150 protected databases, allowed analyzing antisocial behavior of employees. [11] The system is especially useful in tracking suspicious cases of property transfers, infrastructure construction, land acquisitions and demolitions. Also, Zero Trust immediately records growth of the balance in civil servants' bank accounts and quickly establishes facts of purchase of a new car. In addition, artificial intelligence analyzes public procurement and identifies cases when officials, as well as their friends and relatives, participate in tenders.
The system then evaluates how likely it is that a particular action is the result of corruption. If the score is above the established average, the In 2012, the Office of Government Ethics (OGE), which is responsible for the development and monitoring of financial disclosure program, developed the "Integrity" system for civil servants of executive authorities. A web-based system that allows to submit public reports disclosing information about civil servants of the executive authorities, including information about new declarants, annual and periodic transactions, as well as reports after termination of powers. The system allows to improve oversight and transparency of civil servants.

ICT for mining in the area of countering corruption in public procurement.
The International Development Bank uses innovative tool of data mining for the monitoring and supervision of its activity. In government procurement, data mining is used to audit and track government bidding and subsequently to detect collusion and false information. Also, this technology identifies corrupt intentions various transactions with the use of data visualization. [16] An example of an integrated online procurement platform is Korea's KONEPS eprocurement system. [17] In 2002, the Public Procurement Service implemented a fully integrated end-to-end e-procurement system called KONEPS. It covers the entire procurement cycle in electronic form (including one-time registration, bidding, contracting, verification and payment), with online exchange of relevant documents. All public organizations are required to announce tenders through KONEPS. [18] The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology (ISSN -2693-0803) To mitigate this risk, in 2010 the Public Procurement Service introduced "electronic bidding for fingerprint recognition". Introduction of a national e-procurement system has led to a noticeable increase in transparency and integrity of public procurement management in the country.

Experts from the Budapest-based Corruption
Research Center examined large volumes of data on public procurement procedures in EU countries and identified risk areas such as short bidding periods or controversial results (for example, lack of competition in public procurement or multiple winning tenders). [19] ProZorro (from Ukrainian "прозоро"| -openly, transparently), a hybrid electronic data mining system is Ukraine's systemic reform of etender process in public and government procurement. The system is developed in 2014 and administered by NGO Transparency International Ukraine. The system code is open source, according to the Apache 2.0 license, it can be freely downloaded and used.
ProZorro received international Public Sector Procurement Award for e creation and implementation of a unique-architecture electronic system. Development of this system based on open source software was carried out in partnership with government, business and public.
Another successful example of data mining usage is Dozorro (from Ukrainian "дозор"control), an online platform for public control of government tenders integrated into ProZorro databases. The platform has been implemented since November 1, 2016 and is administered by Program of Innovative Projects of "Transparency International Ukraine". The platform consolidates activities of 20 regional monitoring organizations on the quality of specific tender procedures. [20] If a violation of the Law of Ukraine "On Public Procurement" is detected, the platform sends appeals to customers (organizers of tenders), supervisory authorities (State Audit Service, Accounts Chamber), law enforcement agencies (National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine (NABU).

Crowdsourcing technologies in combating corruption.
Crowdsourcing platforms also include digital technologies aimed at collecting and subsequent analysis of information in order to identify patterns and trends. Use of these platforms for combating corruption presupposes creation of a certain digital ecosystem, where each person has the opportunity to leave an anonymous message about a corruption offense. An undoubted advantage of crowdsourcing is that it is intended to ensure interests of various social groups, create a dialogue between the state and society, and increase public control over the actions of state bodies. With the help of crowdsourcing, bills may not only be criticized by the population, but also be offered various constructive solutions to improve performance.
For example, Lithuanian Special Investigation Service (SSR) has launched a mobile application "Pranesk STT" in 2016 in order to activate reports on corruption. Mobile application was created with financial support of the EU Homeland Security Fund. [22] 7. Analytical (Forensic) tools for auditors to identify corruption risks in public and private sectors.
Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology (SMART) tool can be a good example of forensic tool. It carries out analysis of transactions in real-time, predicts, simulates and discovers violations in the financial sector. Risk assessment algorithms can proactively prevent and stop potentially malformed payments in the procurement process.
In Azerbaijan, electronic monitoring system [23] made it possible to collect information on digital technologies implementation level and compare contributions of NGOs to the process of combating corruption.

Electronic systems for verification of income declarations, expenditure, assets and interests of civil servants.
A promising direction for the use of ICT in combating corruption is electronic systems for verifying declarations of civil servants. Summing up, in the context of the fourth industrial revolution in a number of countries, there is a trend of active implementation of such ICTs in anti-corruption processes as technologies for processing large amounts of data, artificial intelligence, analytical analysis tools, crowdsourcing, etc.
As is shown by foreign experience, the use of modern information technologies in combating corruption provides many opportunities for innovative approach to early prevention of corruption offenses, creating a transparent and open system as public administration, rational use of budget funds, reducing negative human factor in relations between the population, business representatives and government agencies.
Effective introduction of ICT in public administration process allows to provide depersonalization and standardization of key administrative processes, to prevent corruption-related crimes, increase quality of public services and level of trust of citizens to the state. [25] At the same time, a number of issues of both legal and ethical nature have not been resolved in this area. In particular, issues of personal data protection of civil servants, unauthorized interference in their personal life, danger of a voluntaristic and evaluative approach on the part of control and supervisory authorities, basis for groundless stigmatization of individual employees, disclosure of professional, commercial information, system and hardware failures, etc.
However, digitalization can also create new vulnerabilities for hacking and wide-scale manipulation, that are simply impossible in paper government. ICTs can also contribute to corruption. New technologies could spawn new corruption -e-corruption linked to the power of the dark web, cryptocurrencies, or simply the abuse of well-designed technologies such as digital government services.
Corruption risks of widespread use of ICT include:  Over-investment in ICT tends to lead to increased corruption, since the distortion of such funds through an opaque procurement process easily creates corruption opportunities;  Blockchain technology can pose a threat to anti-corruption efforts, as it allows for completely anonymous and encrypted cryptocurrency transactions that can be used for theft or fraudulent transactions;  Electronic identity solutions are not completely secure from hackers, and governments need to continually ensure that digital solutions, platforms and systems reflect the highest security standards. This requires a regular update of technology, which can be perceived as a